Research ethics are guidelines about how research can and should be conducted. Researchers aim to develop new knowledge that is accurate and truthful. In particular, when investigating how children use the Internet, researchers are also required to consider and comply with research ethical norms and principles in order to ensure that their research is beneficial for the people and the societies for and about whom they are researching. Researchers should also ensure that the dignity, rights and autonomy of research participants are respected and upheld.

Under this theme, we will present resources and frequently asked questions related to the overall theme of ‘research ethics’. Our focus will be on the ethical norms and principles that relate to conducting research with and about children online.

All research participants should provide informed consent before they participate, or before information and material that can be linked to them is included, in a research project. Consent should be informed, explicit, voluntary and documented. Consent should also be provided by people who are capable of doing so. This is a both a legal and an ethical requirement. But what is the difference between legal and ethical consent?

Under this theme heading, we will discuss and provide resources about the differences between legal and ethical consent with a particular focus on the relevance of these differences when engaging in research with and about children online.

Children and young people participate in research. As research participants children have particular rights to protection and participation that are easily overlooked. In particular, measures should be taken to ensure that children’s perspectives and voice are taken into account in the construction of knowledge.

In spite of the fact that scientists usually take significant measures to ensure that the research they conduct complies with ethical standards, in particular with regard to truth, accuracy and beneficence for research participants, things can and do, go wrong. But how can and should these situations be dealt with? What opportunities are available to address and report about issues or concerns that arise?

Research should be conducted according to the principle of beneficence, including that those involved in the research should benefit from the knowledge that is constructed.

Working according to the principle of beneficence is particularly problematic when working with children and young people. If the knowledge that they are involved in constructing is not directly accessible to them or relevant for their lives, how can this principle be understood? Furthermore, if children and young people are provided with incentives to participate in research, how might this influence their participation?

The majority of European children (aged 9-17) report using their smartphones ‘daily’ or ‘almost all the time’ (Smahel et al., 2020). As such, they encounter a range of risks and opportunities for example when engaging with media content, when socializing, playing games and being creative. At the same time, children’s online experiences are both highly personalized and create digital traces that are recorded and used for commercial purposes. It is therefore important to consider this range of experiences, activities and opportunities when engaging in research with and about children online.

It is also important to consider that children have a range of competences and abilities when using the Internet and that these in turn are mediated by other factors, including individual, relational and social, cultural and economic factors.

The legal definition of sensitive data includes:

• Personal data revealing racial or ethnic origin, political opinions, religious or philosophical beliefs;
• Trade-union membership;
• Genetic data, biometric data processes solely to identify a human being;
• Health-related data; and
• Data concerning a person’s sex life or sexual orientation.

Because communication on the internet in general, and among children and young people, can be of an intimate and private nature, it can include sensitive data. As such researchers need to take particular care of this kind of data.

One approach to facilitating children’s participation in research and to ensuring that children’s perspectives and voices are included in the construction of knowledge, is to engage children as co-researchers. This in turn raises a number of questions with regard to research ethics, including questions of competence, decision-making and beneficence.

In this section we provide a list of additional resources, regulations and rules to consider when engaging in research with and about children and young people online. Please feel free to suggest additions or amendments to this list.

Visit our CO:RE Zotero Group on Research Ethics!

American Psychological Association, Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct

Association of Internet Researchers Ethical Research Guidelines: https://aoir.org/ire30/

Committee on Publication Ethics: https://publicationethics.org/

National Institutes of Health (NIH)

National Science Foundation (NSF)

Nuremberg Code

Singapore Statement on Research Integrity; https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/e-kousei/data/singapore_statement_EN.pdf

Statement on Professional Ethics (American Association of University Professors)

The European Network of Research Integrity Officers: http://www.enrio.eu/

The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity: https://www.allea.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ALLEA-European-Code-of-Conduct-for-Research-Integrity-2017.pdf

The Norwegian Research Ethical Committees’ General research ethical guidelines: https://www.forskningsetikk.no/en/guidelines/general-guidelines/; https://www.forskningsetikk.no/globalassets/dokumenter/4-publikasjoner-som-pdf/general-guidelines.pdf

World Medical Association’s Declaration of Helsinki

The conversation on and compass for research ethics are created by the CO:RE team at the University of Oslo.